Friday, December 11, 2015
Monday, September 21, 2015
WHY FORMALITY TENDS TO FAIL?
WHY FORMALITY TENDS TO FAIL?
Ola Damilola Dominic
4061271
Prof. Ivan Kucina
Formality as we know
it over the past recent years over various sectors has come under a lot of debate
as to what it entails and the conditions around it. What does Formality really
mean? Is Formality an inclusive term or a rather controlled term? Why do we
have Formality? Does its advantages outweigh its disadvantages or vice-versa?
Formality can be
defined as the rigid observance of rules or conventions or etiquettes, stiffness
of behaviour or style, something that is done simply to comply with
requirements of etiquette, regulations, or custom or finally something that is done as a matter of course
and without question; an inevitability. From the definition alone, a lot of questions
arise. So it’s safe to say some things are done with reason but should not be
questioned. Why can’t it be questioned?
But from the
beginning people have always been drawn to freedom or rather opposed to
formality for so many reasons; freedom to move, freedom of expression and
freedom to think because of the because of the human factor, limitless
opportunities and lack of boundary. The quest of a few to map out the
activities of man and create a form of control as done nothing more but placed
a divide between one another. Although it could have been created with the best
of intentions to streamline efforts and increase efficiency. This divide which
is present within Formality as in turn made it that we are but limited in our actions.
A political quote goes saying “Freedom of speech is guaranteed under Formality
but Freedom after speech isn’t”. So then are we really free?
Formality as a means
was devised to take or develop control over resources and then share or
redistribute them equally. This didn’t end up working out according to plan. Most
of the Formal methods being used presently are frameworks written down dozens
of years ago which don’t take into consideration that people, society and
culture do differ across regions and over time. This same framework can’t be
applied every time to get the same results it once gave. It has to be modified
and updated to conform to recent conditions.
Formality as a
system is meant to be arranged or organized such that the focus is on the
interests of people and not on furtherance of national goals. As even after
nations crumble the people still go on living. Because it is almost impossible
to provide the public goals for everyone and at every time when needed,
Formality is being called into question.
Of recent the world
has been turning to learn from the Informal or apply experiences gotten from
the Informal. We wouldn’t be learning from it if Formality was as perfect as it
is proclaimed to be. This is not to romanticize Informality or propose that we
should return to informality as a system because Informality also isn’t perfect
but together or hand in hand the informal and formal could work for the
furtherance of all.
1.
Urbanization: Most
cities from the start have been planned for a specific number and with an
expected population growth which would be constant and kept under check. But the
rate at which the world has urbanized over the past years has been at an unprecedented
rate. Cities population have more than doubled or in some cases tripled and grown
way past projections. Slums have transformed into Urban Sprawls and into
megacities. By 2030, our 7.3 Billion will have increased to 8.4 Billion and 9.7
Billion by 2050 and 11.2 Billion by 2100. Virtually all population growth would
take place between now and then in cities. But the problem would be our failure
to plan for this expected influx. Formality has made it such that our cities
are stiff and rigid and can’t exactly be modified to accept changes. The formal
systems have made our cities a bottleneck of bureaucracies. One advantage of
the Informal in this aspect is its flexibility and resilience. People keep
coming into them but never at a point was there a threat to their structure or
originality in terms of social and economic value. It could be said that
Informal systems have no identity but what are we to expect from a hurriedly
put together system which knows it has to operate against all odds which
definitely are not in its favour. Against all this odds, the informal still
seems to stay afloat and accommodate change as it comes always able to make or
squeeze out enough square meters for the next influx. We need to be able to
learn from this process and apply to our formal cities to enable us cope with
the expected new wave of urbanization. Already in some cities the urbanization
has almost made it impossible for formality to function. Unplanned urban sprawl,
environmental pollution, deterioration, deficiencies in modern basic
facilities, and general urban decay has almost grounded formality to a halt. Basic
services and amenities have to be sourced for informally. Urbanization has
helped in pointing out the defects in formality and it needs to be fixed as
soon as possible as the world prepares for another wave of Urbanization.
2.
Industrialization:
The greatest accomplishment of Formality seems to be industrialization. The
struggle for efficiency, streamlined production, division of labour and so on.
But this has brought on a segment or part of the citizens untold hardship. With
most of the world citizens now being exclusive consumers, resources are running
out faster than they can be regenerated. The Industrial Revolution changed
material production, wealth, labour patterns and population distribution.
Although many rural areas remained farming communities during this time, the
lives of people in cities changed drastically. The new industrial labour
opportunities caused a population shift from the countryside to the cities. The
new factory work led to a need for a strict system of factory discipline.
Population movement was caused by people living in small farming communities
who moved to cities. There was population increase and this was thought to be
due to a dramatic decline in the death rate. A drop in famines, warfare and
illnesses, and an increase in food sources, all mixed to cause a population
spike. Cities became centres of industrial growth. But the growth of cities led
to horrible living conditions. The wealthy fared far better than the industrial
workers because they could afford to live in the suburbs on the outskirts of
the city. However, for most of the factory workers, cities were dirty, crowded
places where epidemics frequently broke out. The division became even more
prominent.
Industrialization transferred a portions of a
workforce from agriculture (Rural), which spreads cultivators across the land,
to manufacturing which was established in cities. This process reduced
drastically the balance and relationship between Rural and Urban and left the
rural populace hanging on. The effects of Industrialization can briefly be summarised
as Friedrich Engels put it “The first great division of labour, the separation
of Rural and Urban, condemned the rural population to thousands of years of
mental torpidity, and the people of the urban each to subjection to his own
individual trade. It destroyed the basis of the intellectual development of the
former and the physical development of the latter. When the peasant appropriates
his land, and the townsman his trade, the land appropriates the peasant and the
trade the townsman to the very same extent. In the division of labour, man is
also divided. The way out would be the creation of a Rural-Urban in which all the
advantages of the most energetic and active town life, with all the beauty and
delight of the country, may be secured in perfect combination ; and the
certainty of being able to live this life will be the magnet which will produce
the effect for which we are all striving — the spontaneous movement of the
people from our crowded cities to the bosom of our kindly mother earth, at once
the source of life, of happiness, of wealth, and of power.
3.
Inflexibility:
From the definition of formality alone which is defined as the rigid observance
of rules or conventions. It leaves room for a lot of loops. People have and
would always react to rules and only go with it when it favours their
sustenance. When a system offers no economic or personal benefit, ways around
it would be found giving room to Informality. Formality is concerned with the
process and in some instances, there are more than two or three processes to
achieve a result but Formality allows for just one process to be mapped and
replicated by all without taking into context the various existing conditions.
Informality as a system is very flexible as the end result is what matters and
not the process. For example, in Formality to build a house requires set down
principles, guidelines, materials and a lot more before the process of building
can begin and is so for almost every situation under it whereas with
Informality the context is always first considered before any design is applied
with various means such that each work is different from the other. This
flexibility of the informal gives rise to creativity and allows for a discovery
of new means. Of recent the flexibility of the Informal has given rise to the
so called expandable house whereby houses can be built over a period of time in
stages and improved upon as against the formal process of it being fully
constructed before being inhabited. It’s known that the cost of construction
due to formality has been increased by as much as 45% in some cities and as
such most people are not able to finish construction at a go.
4.
Regulations and
Laws: Because many formal cities are still being governed by laws which do not necessarily
match the prevailing urban reality, people tend to avoid getting trapped in the
regulations and laws as they are only but rigid. In some cases the regulations
and laws do exist but the failure for it to be enforced leads to a breakdown. Also
with the multiplicity of these laws, the costs associated are always high which
includes the cost of compliance and enforcement. The multiplicity and rigidity
of laws and regulations compel people to pursue informal routes to conduct
transactions, to do business and to get access to basic services. Excessive
regulations such as strict zoning, organization of urban space in exclusive
residential, commercial or industrial areas also seem to always give rise to
sprawl and an horizontal low density expansion of urban spaces.
The myriad of paper works and legal processes which need
to be followed meticulously and authorized by various offices knowing it might as
well be rejected at the end of the day is a turn off already for most who think
of the formal process. Then comes the informal which asks for almost nothing
but allows for almost anything. To take for example the processes and
formalities required to get a loan from a bank which is more often than not
denied and the assurance of getting a loan from a friend or through informal
means which is often guaranteed. We then can call into question formality
itself.
5.
Resources:
Formality thrives on the use and efficiency of resources and with the migration
trend worldwide, human resources which are the most important tend to move about.
This is due to the strong presence or concentration of businesses and companies
and others in a certain geographic area. If this is instead rather spread over
an area then the movement can be curbed and by so doing human resources are
kept in place and development is furthered.
Furthermore, Formality has been able to find a way to use up the most
productive land, dammed the most energetically profitable rivers and tapped
into the easiest to reach water. Now resources left are minimum and there’s a
problem with trying to share the benefits equally. So the quest for resources
which Formality so thrives on would be a reason for formality to break at
tipping point.
6.
Housing: The
impact of rapid population growth on housing development in almost all
economies is usually the consequence of the push of the rural areas and the
pull of the town. As the rural areas tend to efficiency thereby spewing people
out of barely sustainable jobs left which is in most instances due to the
industrialization of Agriculture. This leads to an upsurge in the amount of
people who move into the urban formal cities. This growth which is known still tends
to be highly unplanned for. There’s absolutely no reason why people would want
to stay in an area without jobs or other economic opportunities but the
government tends to think so. The newly urban people move into the urban
centres and are almost unable to get a befitting accommodation for the price
value they can afford. Some are left at the mercy of housing policies and social
policies which is more often always an attempt to keep them silent but is never
enough. There is always an upsurge and conglomeration of people in city centres
with the resultant effects on housing growth arising from acute unemployment.
This growth and physical expansion of cities have been accompanied by unplanned
urban sprawl, environmental pollution, deterioration, deficiencies in modern
basic facilities, and general urban decay. As increased poverty and
urbanization exert more pressures on urban facilities, most cities tend to have
lost their original dignity, social cohesion and administrative efficiency.
The provision of affordable housing for this newly
urban citizens has always been a major problem such that the only way out for
them is to seek solace within the informal. The informal system being flexible,
expandable and able to readjust with little or no costs and less troubles is
almost always.
7.
Administrative
and Political Influence: This plays a huge role in determining the success or
failure of formality. The presence in the formal goes a long way but more than
the presence, the effectiveness is the main deciding factor. But this presence often
more than not but plays a negative role. The struggle for power or
administrative control is resource intensive and capital expensive. This
struggle is done using resources and at the end the resources are almost all
used up and the dividends of it cannot be equally divided or shared. This
causes a huge gap in the equality of people and only deepens it. More often the
results of the struggle for resources and powers ends with a shift power often
with a movement of resources and key sectors. With this movement, the old
location is left behind and almost left behind. The left over control and
formal system is almost impossible to sustain itself. This results in a
breakdown of infrastructures and services at some point or an overwhelming of
existing ones. The power control happens to be within just a few for example
the Politicians and Billionaires. Of recent, there was a report as to what the
effect of Billionaires is on any given city or economy and they have little or
no impact. The money awarded for contracts only ends up switching accounts
between a group of people and only manages to trickle down. So if formality
should pride itself on being able to create billionaires and they have little
or no effect on the system do we still term is as a success.
8.
Human Control:
Lastly, the main struggle for Formality has been Control. From
industrialization to migration to resources to the laws and all. The main goal
has been a way to control man. But we all know the last thing any human wants
to be is to be controlled. With formal in place, boundaries are put up. Freedom
is given but not fully. With the informal, people are free to live out their
fantasies and dreams and boundaries are blurred so that they almost don’t
exist. People can switch domains and back as they please. With the formal as
can be seen in urban spaces, there’s a sort of control on people being zoned
into exclusive areas and allowing almost for no social mix. In various new age
developments, success rate has been deemed low for this reason alone. People
complain they become alienated to one another. There’s almost no contact or mix
as everyone is indirectly controlled leading to the way he behaves. What is
needed is an inclusive development that lets go of the reins of control to help
with social mixes and exchanges.
Formality we can say
has reached a state of nirvana whereby it is no longer considered natural but
now just tedious and boring. It is important to realize that Formality and
Informality should be seen as a continuum and part of a socio-economic fabric
where actors with various degrees of formality, interact, compete and exchange
and not as a dichotomy of one over the other. One should not also be seen as a
necessary good or the other as a necessary bad but both should be seen as parts
of a whole. The main aim at the end is to make both benefit those who happen to
live in both. The choices we make now would have a huge effect on how much
sustainable we will be with the human race.
Wednesday, August 26, 2015
INTRIGUING ARCHITECTURE- Can Informal Architecture be Vibrant?
INTRIGUING ARCHITECTURE- Can Informal Architecture be Vibrant?
In the past three decades the mass migration has led to the
most rapid urbanisation ever witnessed in the history of mankind. The result is
an exorbitant and unimaginable increase in the number of informal settlement
cropping up. The phenomenon is on an exponential rise in the ‘World Cities’ of
Asia, Latin America, Africa and Eastern Europe. Government authorities have
often demolished them more as a knee-jerk reaction rather than a thoughtful
implementation without long-term objectives. Urban designers and planners, who
earlier used to see it as an eyesore and unapproachable part of the city have
understood their importance, changed their stance and now accept it and work
with the locals to include these areas in the main stream governance. People
over the world have recognised their rational and intelligent innovations in
fulfilling their needs and have been trying to incorporate this in planning of
formal settlements too. Informal settlements are evaluated in relation to their
surrounding landscape of poor sanitation, insecure housing, hazardous grounds,
lack of roads and infrastructure. We tend to focus mainly on improving and
providing these things and ignore the significant intangible knowledge that
these settlements provide about visual stimulus, resilience, resource
efficiency and community values.
The essay tries to investigate if these qualities exist
within these informal settlements and can formal infrastructure be flexible
enough for informal use by looking at different examples of Urbanised Cities
from around the world.
When Janice Perlman, in The
Myth of Marginality, questions us if we see a chaotic, poorly-built,
overcrowded, disorderly slum or a neighbourhood in progress, emphasized by
careful planning in the use of limited housing space and innovative
construction techniques on hillsides considered too steep for building by urban
developers, she not only sees favelas
as a physical expression of people struggling to move upwards against obstacles
but also as an inspiration symbolising true grit of human necessities.
The world we see is for us always
both form and significance. Our aesthetic experience reflects both. Thus, there
is a political aspect to aesthetics and an aesthetic aspect to political
judgement and political struggle. - Lisa R. Peattie, Aesthetic
Politics.
Society’s impressions play an important
role in shaping policy where squatter developments accommodating most of the
urban immigrants are seen as ‘urban villages’. It’s in these rural enclaves
within the city the slow transition from peasant values and skills into the
culture of the city takes place. This view suited researchers who had little or
no direct contact with the inhabitants of the settlements and needed to confirm
their presence without actually recognising them as fellow citizens. Even
Bernard Rudofsky's influential Architecture
without Architect dwells fondly on Mediterranean cliff villages and African
tribal settlements but overlooks the Brazilian favelas and Venezuelan barrios.
Probably because these informal settlements in spite of being true to the
resource efficiency, material usage and least energy consumption somehow do not
make it vernacular architecture.
1. Formal vs Informal (Chandigarh and Varanasi)
We as methodical
and structured beings have a tendency to picture formal architecture as planned
city with roads, pedestrians, boulevards, public buildings in downtown, high
end markets with plazas, residential and office complexes, all of them nicely
laid out in grids. For instance a Chandigarh or a New Delhi definitely has all
the reasons to impress an inhabitant. Both grid plans have eased out traffic
movement, services movement and efficient zoning. Planners and architects had
been so over thoughtful, that these ordered layouts and planning have squeezed
out all the excitement and intimacy that a city must share with its inhabitant.
Rationally laid out roads with a green strip and nicely separated bicycle and
pedestrian lanes might have made it safe for automobile users but have reduced ‘unintentional
interaction’ amongst inhabitants. The buildings are so carefully placed and
controlled that they are almost in isolation either having no dialogue or
looking all the same. Zoning is so thoroughly monotonous that there is no room
left to pleasantly awe a walker or a bicycle rider. A vibrant city is much more
explored on foot than in cars. Comparing these formally laid out cities to
Varanasi, the oldest city in India built along Ganges; one discovers that it has
much more visual treats and intimacy to offer within its squalor alleys than
any planned city in India. In many pre-modern villages before the intervention of planning, the
‘public’ path evolves out of the setback of building blocks rather than
pre-determines the layout of the physical space. Some say that it’s
the alleys of Varanasi, too narrow for traffic, that hold the charm of the old
city. Don’t worry about getting lost because sooner or later you will end up in
front of the river or on the main street. Virtually every life is carried out in public right in front
of your eyes – prayers, sleeping, cooking, eating, bathing, even roadside
dentistry. Streets that are not wide enough for even two bicycles have
occasional surprise elements like temples and heritage buildings waiting to
greet the visitor when it is least expected, as if these important structures
have been engulfed by the city itself. Like Bruce Mau mentioned in Massive Change-“The highest order of success
in design is to achieve ubiquity, to become banal.” Nothing is hidden, and
all the truth is out on the streets. And it is all these elements -the taste,
smell, people, and the hustle bustle that make these streets lifeline of the
city. These
unplanned meandering narrow pathways always have a story to tell with every
turn and intrigue us more often than not. They surprise us, confuse us and on
few occasions shock us too but never leave us with a dull moment.
2. Informal WITHIN Formal- Taiwan’s Informal Urbanism
Informal
urbanism is usually a visual perception about the uncontrollable high-density
living in the rapidly urbanized world which adjusts quickly to the collective
need and wants without paying regard to dominant law and order. On one hand,
the appearances of informal urbanism are crudely condemned as defiant invasion
of public spaces; yet on the other hand, celebrated as an amazing collage of
complex urbanism which expresses the true nature of city and denounces the
rational self-righteousness of planning. It challenges architectural
dictatorship, authorship, and control by expressing idiosyncratic individualities
in a collective mode. It is also attractive in the sense of organic and
piecemeal evolution instead of implementations of imposed plans. The
visualization of informal urbanism is not to be achieved by a singular author;
therefore, it is collaborative, symbiotic, unpredictable, and impacts the
social fabric of the city. The following case study of the South Airport Apartment
embodies Taipei’s version of informal urbanism and signifies the role of
individual households’ living patterns in shaping the informal city.
The diagram below explains
the process of a gradual transformation which is incremental and subtle as the
addition of floor area is not always on solid ground. With understanding
neighbours and disinterested local authorities every inhabitant achieves his
own version of informalisation. A normal apartment owned by a single guy
demands some changes when he gets married and starts a family. A big hall is
partitioned to provide a bedroom for privacy. The balcony is encroached
and covered from 3 sides to provide an extra bedroom with the arrival of the
first child. As the second child adds into the family the public space of
staircase well is added with the consent of the neighbours who do not object as
it gives them prospects for later additions too. So a one room flat is
transformed into a three bedroom flat over a period of time. And some
inhabitants buy the flat next to it too to break the in-between wall and make
the whole house bigger. That’s how a normal 26sq.m flat for one person is changed
into 105sq.m flat accommodating five people comfortably.
However, the most commendable thing is that all these transformations are
practical and economic. Interior rooms are partitioned with light panel walls
and relinquish the use of wall closet for more interchangeability. Hooks and
poles are deployed to hang items on the walls and under ceiling, which explains
why many of these flats still look transitional after decades of living.
The extended room on the street
side is suspended by steel cables on metal sheet surface. Small contractors and
material suppliers those are dexterous, versatile, resourceful, and community-based
are Indispensible chains to Taiwan’s small-scale industry boom. Their network
responds quickly to the domestic need yet distinguishes itself from the market
dominated by corporate builders and developers.
Public space is usually operated under strict
guidelines and regulations, yet the threshold of the public domain is not well
respected in informal city. Territorialisation of these transitional spaces for
private use by inhabitants is the most expressive desire of Informal city. Porch-corridors
facing the central court at various levels are the most significant spatial
feature. According to fire code they ought to be clean and open. Yet these porch-corridors
are perfect settings for laundry and drying clothes in the compact living
condition of the apartment; and by scattering benches and chairs them they fulfil
the neighbourhood’s collective desire for an extended living room. The unwelcoming
atmosphere of the original modernist landscape would suddenly be tinged with an
aura of ‘human flavour’ and colours of individualities whenever the informal
activities emerge.
Reclaiming Public space for Public use-
An initiative taken up by government in collaboration with citizen bodies, ‘Raahgiri day’, inspired by Cyclovia in Bogota, is one of the first steps towards making New Delhi suburbs a sustainable and environment friendly city. A portion of the busies roads are cordoned off every Sunday morning for four hours and many organisations offer to conduct health programs, theatre, music etc for the benefit of the community. Children and adults are invited to bike, skate, run and walk; to partake in community leisure activities such as street games, street dancing; to learn yoga, aerobics and zumba; and to come together as a community and celebrate life. The project has received such positive response that it is getting introduced in almost every major city of India. The basic aim behind the Raahgiri event is to promote social integration, protect the environment and facilitate sustainable transport.
3. Informal WITHIN Informal- Shivaji Nagar, Mumbai
Within the
informal city, there are multiple social, economic, and urban relationships
that can hardly be understood by the macroscopic tools used by planning authorities.
Satellite images, top-down development plans do not register the rich spatial
and programmatic connections that are revealed by simply taking a walk down
the narrow alleys. The combination of mixed uses, and slow, minimal car traffic
encourages residents to turn every residual space into a playground or a
‘public square’. One of the most ignored areas in slum rehabilitation schemes
is spaces for children and community gatherings. So the inhabitants have to
device their own indigenous solutions to deal with these issues. Big events
like a festival or marriage take place within the streets and courtyards by
simply demarcating space with a bamboo structure covered in sheets. The concept
of public space goes beyond the restricted parks and gardens model bounded by
iron gates. Instead, walkable, compact and dense mixed-use neighbourhoods offer
richer moments for public interaction. Playgrounds liberate young minds and
help children develop their abilities, teaching them personal responsibility,
and to thrive as a member of a team or community. Open spaces attract mothers
and families living in vulnerable areas to experience social services and
other exchanges. So it is quite fundamental that the design of playgrounds and
public spaces within informal settlements propagate social inclusion. Even in
areas of low material resources, a rich cultural and social life of the
community contributes to the well-being of the children. Some of the most
positive physical qualities depend upon freedom from physical dangers, and
freedom of movement supported by a diversity of activity settings and peer
gathering areas. As mentioned before, the typology of informal settlements
contributes to create such an environment better than planned developments flawed
by sterile rigidity. Planners and architects should seek to learn from the
walkability and playability of its informal settlements to devise new design
solutions that weave interventions and infrastructures strategically into the
socially rich fabric.
4. Formal WITHIN Informal-
Caracas
Limited land
and high crime rate in a dense informal settlement make it unsafe for
children to play and participate in sports. In seeking to give informal
settlement communities safe places of recreation, local architects at Urban
Think- Tank in Caracas created the Gimnasio
Vertical (Vertical Gymnasium) prototype, a prefabricated construction
system that transformed a rundown soccer field into a four story Vertical Gym
in the La Cruz barrio. The vertical structure of the gym provides recreational
and cultural events facility without encroaching into surrounding properties. It
has numerous sport activities in the same space in order to meet the necessities
of both serious athletes and general public. Building system has been developed
as a kit of the prototype parts, which allow flexible design and construction
and can be reassembled and programmed for different locations as per local
needs.
Working with
the San Rafael-Barrio Unido community in La Vega, a team of architects, engineers, a road designer, and a geologist studied
the settlement’s conditions to assess that vertical typography was the
determining condition limiting accessibility, services, and public spaces.
Based on community-established priorities, the team devised an Integral Urban
Project to help solve the problem. The existing pedestrian walkways were a
series of resident-built stairs, narrow in width, with variable step size, no
handrails, high slopes, and no stairs higher up the hill. To connect neighbourhoods
and improve daily commute, the team designed a network of stairs which
incorporated basic services such as electricity, drainage, sewer, gas, and
water. Every spare space was integrated into walkways, and public landings
inserted at intervals acted as new spaces for social interaction. Most importantly
families were able to remain in their homes, which was critical to maintaining
social cohesion.
Conclusion
The
residents of the informal city duel everyday - negotiating with the system as
outsiders, improvising around the shortcomings of public-private institutions,
and somehow managing to improve their lives. And in the process they create a
socially active and vibrant environment around them that cannot be ignored. If
designers, architects, and planners hope to be relevant in this context, then
they must first improve the immediate well-being of the residents through small
interventions and proposals. Such proposals have to be tactical,
executed involving the local people and create solutions that maintain the core philosophy of informal settlement. The end-goal is to change policy by demonstrating
real change which depends on
self-reliance and ingenuity and not necessarily on political will. From an individual household to a porch-corridor to
an apartment shrine to a street market, these growing spaces of different
scales somehow strive to reach an
equilibrium with the formal city. Beyond the informal façade- either as a
spectacle or chaos, traces of everyday life continue to weave a rich fabric of urban narratives.
References:
Peattie,
Lisa R. (1992). Aesthetic Politics:
Shantytown or New Vernacular?
Rudofsky,
Bernard. (1965). Architecture without Architects. New York. Connecticut Printers
Mau, B.
(2004). Massive Change. New York. : Phaidon Press Limited
Kang, Min
Jay. (2009). Informal urbanism from inside-out– Internalizing Taipei experiences of
informality.
Raahgiri
Day. http://www.raahgiriday.com/about/
Davis, Mike.
(2006). Planet of Slums. London. New
Left Books
Correa, C.
(1989). The New Landscape: Urbanisation in the Third World. London.:
Mimar
Biswas, Saurav K. (2013). Play!
Tactics & Strategies for public spaces in Mumbai’s informal city.
Image References:
Fig-4,5,6,8,9,10- Biswas, Saurav K. (2013). Play! Tactics & Strategies for public
spaces in Mumbai’s informal city.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)